Examining Food Insecurity in Ethiopia: Under the Context of Human Security
ABSTRACT
Examining Food Insecurity in Ethiopia: Under the Context of Human Security
This paper examines the multifaceted issue of food insecurity in Ethiopia through the lens of human security. Initially, it outlines the concept of human security and underscores the pivotal role of food security within its framework. Then it evaluates the effectiveness of government policies aimed at alleviating this problem. The primary argument is twofold: first, the causes of food insecurity in Ethiopia are complex, and the lack of income diversification exacerbates the country's vulnerability; second, the government should revise its food security policy to include broader economic sectors beyond agriculture. Using structuralist development theory, the paper critiques the current agricultural-centric policies and advocates for a more inclusive approach. The study begins by defining food insecurity and differentiating it from hunger, followed by a discussion on the global prevalence of the issue. It then explores the ecological and socio-economic factors contributing to food insecurity in Ethiopia, such as drought and population growth, and highlights the limitations of income diversification. The methodology includes a comprehensive review of existing literature and analysis of national legislation. National policies, including the House of Peoples’ Representatives Regulation No. 3/1998 and the Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI) program, are critically analyzed. The paper concludes by addressing criticisms of the proposed broader approach and emphasizing the need for multidimensional strategies to effectively tackle food insecurity in Ethiopia.
Keywords: Human Security, Food Insecurity, Development Policy, Ethiopia
1. Introduction
In this term paper, I will analyze food insecurity in Ethiopia and examine government policies related to food security. I will do this in the light of human security. Within this context, I will argue that: a) the reasons for food insecurity are multifaceted, and the lack of income diversification exacerbates the already fragile situation, and b) the state should revise or modify its food security policy to be inclusive of other sectoral economic developments instead of focusing solely on agriculture. While discussing these points, I will refer to structuralist theory and its critiques of development.
The motivation for addressing this topic stems from the persistent problem of food insecurity in Ethiopia and the lack of literature addressing this issue from perspectives beyond agriculture and rural development. Thus, my term paper is descriptive in examining national policies that address food insecurity. Additionally, it is normative in arguing that the state should approach food insecurity from a broader perspective than agriculture and rural development.
In the first part of the term paper, I will discuss the concept of Security and the emergence of Human Security as a new concept. Then I will describe food insecurity, presenting various formal definitions, and differentiate it from the concept of hunger. I will also provide data to illustrate the prevalence of the problem in both developing and developed states. In relation to this, I will briefly discuss how food insecurity is perceived as a human rights issue in the liberal global agenda, highlighting that food security is globally accepted as a criterion for the well-being of all human beings.
In the second part, I will discuss the reasons for food insecurity in Ethiopia. Specifically, I will examine: 1) the impact of ecological factors such as drought and population growth on Ethiopia's rain-fed agriculture, and 2) the lack of income diversification as a trigger for the situation. In the third part of the term paper, I will evaluate national policies related to food security. Here, a) I will review the current policies, and b) I will offer my critique, considering the underlying reasons for food insecurity. I will evaluate these national policies in light of structuralist development theory.
In the conclusion, I will address potential criticisms of my argument and mention the limitations of the study. Finally, I will summarize my term paper, emphasizing that studies on food insecurity and relevant policies should adopt a multidimensional approach that extends beyond agriculture.
2. What is Security?
Security is a term fraught with complexity and controversy, encompassing a myriad of interpretations and definitions. At its most basic level, security can be understood as the absence of war or conflict. Traditionally, security has been associated with military strength, warfare, and the preservation of state sovereignty. (Baldwin, 1997) It is often perceived as a collective good provided by the state, focusing on the survival and integrity of the nation-state. Security can be conceptualized in several ways. One approach is to consider it as a state of being, which refers to an objective condition where an entity is either secure or insecure. Alternatively, security can be viewed as a feeling, a subjective experience where an individual or group perceives themselves to be secure or insecure. This duality highlights the multifaceted nature of security, encompassing both tangible and intangible elements. Furthermore, security can be understood as a system of relationships between two or more parties, or as an ongoing process of becoming secure. This dynamic perspective emphasizes the relational and evolving aspects of security, recognizing that it is not a static condition but rather a continuous pursuit.
In any discussion of security, it is essential to consider the concept of threat. A threat can be defined as any message, action, feeling, or relationship that implies harm unless certain conditions are met. Threats can be categorized into two broad types: those with a specific subject and those without. For instance, threats between states with a historical background of hostility are examples of subject-specific threats. On the other hand, threats such as food insecurity, climate change, and natural disasters like earthquakes are subject-less, affecting broad swathes of the population irrespective of political or historical contexts. (Baldwin, 1971) Understanding the meaning of security is crucial for two primary reasons. Firstly, from an epistemological standpoint, defining security determines what is included in its scope and what is excluded. This delineation is fundamental in shaping our theoretical frameworks and guiding academic discourse. Secondly, from a practical perspective, the definition of security informs policy decisions and public opinion. It serves as a foundation for critiquing and contesting existing policies, shaping the direction and allocation of resources. This practical aspect underscores the importance of a clear and comprehensive understanding of security, as it directly influences governmental and societal actions. Moreover, the definition of security has profound implications for resource allocation. By determining what constitutes a threat and what needs protection, it shapes national priorities and directs funding towards specific areas. For instance, a state that defines security primarily in military terms may allocate more resources to defense spending, while one that includes economic or environmental aspects of security may invest more in social programs and sustainable development initiatives. Overall, security is a complex and multifaceted concept with diverse definitions and interpretations. Its understanding extends beyond traditional military notions to encompass relational, subjective, and evolving dimensions. Recognizing the nature of threats and the importance of clear definitions is essential for both theoretical clarity and practical policy-making, influencing how societies allocate resources and address the myriad challenges they face.
2.1. The Evolution of Security: From National to Human Security
While state integrity is undeniably crucial for the well-being of its citizens, the concept of security extends beyond merely national or state security. National security, in some instances, can paradoxically pose significant threats to the very citizens it aims to protect. This is particularly evident when state actions intended to preserve national security lead to repression, human rights violations, or neglect of non-military threats that affect the population's daily lives. The end of the Cold War marked a significant paradigm shift in the understanding of security. Traditionally, security was viewed through the lens of military might and state sovereignty. However, a new concept emerged in this period—human security. Human security seeks to protect individuals from a broad spectrum of threats, not only military but also non-military and non-agenda threats such as hunger, poverty, and natural disasters. These issues, traditionally not recognized as "security" concerns, have gained prominence in contemporary security discourse. Many attribute the concept of human security to the 1994 Human Development Report by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). However, its roots trace back further to the Cold War era's critical examination of security paradigms. The arms race during this period highlighted the need to shift focus from national security to the security of individuals. This shift was championed by several high-profile commissions, including the Brandt Commission, the Brundtland Commission, and the Commission on Global Governance. These commissions emphasized the importance of considering non-military threats in global security debates. (Acharya, 2001)
The transition from state-centric security to human security is underscored by several significant developments:
A, Increasing Incidence of Civil Wars and Intrastate Conflicts: The latter half of the 20th century saw a rise in civil wars and internal conflicts, resulting in substantial casualties and highlighting the limitations of traditional security measures.
B, Democratization: The democratization process in many countries emphasized the importance of individual rights and freedoms, thus broadening the scope of security to include human security.
C, Humanitarian Interventions: The advent of humanitarian interventions, which justified state interventions in other nations during severe human rights violations, underscored the need for a security framework that prioritized human welfare.
D, Economic Crises and Globalization: The widespread unemployment, poverty, and forced dislocation resulting from the economic crises of the 1990s, often attributed to the forces of globalization, further highlighted the need for a more inclusive understanding of security. (Acharya, 2001)
Despite its growing importance, human security lacks a precise definition. It is characterized by expansive and often vague descriptions, encompassing everything from physical to psychological well-being. This broad scope presents challenges for researchers and policymakers, as it complicates the process of prioritizing issues and making informed decisions. The ambiguity of human security definitions can hinder the development of targeted policies and the efficient allocation of resources. Overall, the evolution from national security to human security reflects a broader understanding of what it means to be secure. While state integrity remains vital, the well-being of individuals must be central to security policies. This shift necessitates recognizing and addressing a wide range of threats that affect people's lives, moving beyond the narrow confines of traditional military concerns.
3. Food Insecurity
3.1. Food insecurity on an international scale
In this part, I will introduce a definition of the concept of food insecurity. Then I will present some official data showing the prevalence of the problem in both developed and developing countries.
According to the definition provided by the FAO, food insecurity refers to the conditions in which individuals lack consistent access to an adequate supply of safe and nutritious food essential for their normal growth, development, and maintenance of a healthy lifestyle. This insufficiency may be due to the absence of food or insufficient resources to obtain it. Food insecurity can stem from two primary factors: firstly, a production problem characterized by the unavailability of food, and secondly, a distribution problem that impedes access to food. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), food insecurity is the inability to get adequate food for a healthy, active life consistently. Accordingly, if a person lacks regular access to adequate safe, and nourishing food for healthy growth and development as well as an active and fulfilling life, he is considered to be food insecure. In its conventional definition ‘food security, at household level, exists when all members, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. Therefore the opposite of this is food insecurity that considered being one of the main causes of malnutrition and undernutrition. Undernutrition refers to the deficiency of important elements as vitamins, protein, and energy sources within the body of human individuals. Children under five, as well as lactating and pregnant women, are particularly susceptible to malnutrition due to their increased need for nutrient-rich foods, along with essential health and sanitation care, even during periods of food security.
There are various indicators used to identify food insecurity, particularly moderate and severe food insecurity according to FAO. Individuals facing moderate food insecurity often have to compromise on both the quality and quantity of their food intake. They experience persistent uncertainty regarding their future ability to obtain food, primarily due to financial constraints or a lack of other necessary resources. This state of food insecurity can significantly heighten the risk of various forms of malnutrition. For instance, it can lead to stunting in children, which affects their growth and development, as well as micronutrient deficiencies, which can cause a range of health issues, and even obesity in adults, which can arise despite limited food intake due to poor dietary quality. Conversely, those experiencing severe food insecurity are in a much more critical situation. These individuals have completely exhausted their food supplies and, in the most extreme circumstances, may endure days without any food. This group of individuals is often referred to as the "hungry." Severe food insecurity signifies a dire level of deprivation and poses a direct threat to the individuals' health and well-being. Moreover, we need to distinguish hunger from food insecurity. Hunger is a physical or sensational discomfort caused by a lack of food that all human beings experience at some point in his/her lives whereas, food insecurity is the inability to constantly access food due to financial reasons.(Hodel, 2019) According to WHO, 924 million people which is 11.9% of the world population experienced severe food insecurity, and 2.3 billion people (29.3%) experienced moderate food insecurity in 2021. Focusing on different genders and age groups, data from 2021 reveals that the gender gap in food insecurity has increased, with 31.9 percent of women and 27.6 percent of men globally experiencing moderate to severe food insecurity. Despite expectations of a global economic recovery, projections indicate that around 670 million people, representing 8 percent of the global population, will still face hunger by 2030. (UN Report, 2021)
3.2. Food insecurity as a human rights issue
In this section, I will articulate the perception of food insecurity as a human security concern that violates human rights, and the importance of addressing it to safeguard fundamental human rights.
One might argue that threats to individual human beings do not necessarily constitute threats to an entire nation, while threats to a nation-state are invariably threats to everyone within it. However, it is important to recognize that human security and national security do not always align and may sometimes clash. Human security can be significantly compromised for the sake of state security or, in some cases, regime security, regardless of whether the regime is democratic or authoritarian. For example, governments might prioritize military expenditures and state-centric security measures over addressing pressing human security issues such as poverty, hunger, and health crises. This misalignment can lead to situations where the well-being of the populace is neglected, as state security concerns take precedence over individual needs. In extreme cases, regimes may exploit human security for political gain, justifying repressive measures under the guise of national security. Moreover, it is essential to critically examine why war is considered a threat in the first place. War is primarily deemed a threat due to the immense life and socioeconomic losses and casualties it causes. If we acknowledge that the destruction of lives and the socioeconomic fabric is what makes war a significant threat, then we must also recognize that ongoing socioeconomic issues, such as poverty, inequality, and inadequate access to essential services, pose substantial threats to national stability. Therefore, it is crucial to question why these persistent socioeconomic problems are not identified and addressed as national threats. These issues demand significant attention and resources, comparable to what is allocated for military advancements. Unlike military threats, socioeconomic threats cannot be resolved through military strategies. Instead, they require comprehensive, multi-faceted approaches that prioritize human security and address the root causes of vulnerability.
Additionally, another perspective is the understanding of liberalism and its main values. Liberalism commonly denotes a social justice framework that prioritizes the autonomy of individuals in shaping their lives. It emphasizes the centrality of human beings, recognizing their inherent rights vis-à-vis the government. Autonomy is characterized by the ability to lead one's life in alignment with personal goals, reasons, and intentions, without undue influence or coercion. The basic requirements for autonomy include possessing sufficient physical capacity (freedom from physical limitations and adequate bodily health), possessing adequate mental capacity (maintaining mental health, cognitive ability, and freedom from existential struggles), being free from coercion, manipulation, indoctrination, and conditioning, and lastly, having the freedom to voluntarily choose any lifestyle without fear of oppression or punishment.
Considering these circumstances, an individual experiencing food insecurity lacks the ability to live autonomously. The physical and mental challenges stemming from food insecurity hinder their capacity for healthy decision-making, impede their ability to plan their lives freely, and obstruct their persistence in following through with decisions. Instead, they struggle with both physical deficiencies due to the lack of essential nutrients and psychological issues such as depression, anxiety, and emotional distress stemming from unmet basic needs. They feel insecure about their survival. Thus, autonomy-centered liberalism is tasked with addressing food insecurity through various policies according to its capabilities. Ending food insecurity is not merely an act of generosity by the state but rather an obligation and a priority in policy development. (Acar, 2021)
3.3. Food Insecurity in Ethiopia
As a developing country, Ethiopia faces significant food security challenges. To understand this issue, it is essential to examine whether it arises from ecological factors, government inefficiency or ineffective policies. In this chapter, I will explore the possible reasons for food insecurity in Ethiopia and why these issues are challenging to resolve. In the first part, I will briefly examine Ecological perspectives which highlight the impact of climate factors such as rainfall and drought, and population growth on agricultural productivity. Then I will discuss how the lack of income diversification further triggers the situation and makes it so difficult to resolve.
Food insecurity can stem from two primary factors: a production problem characterized by the unavailability of food and a distribution problem that impedes access to food. While both production and distribution challenges contribute to Ethiopia's food insecurity, the primary issue lies in ineffective rain-fed agriculture, resulting in insufficient food production (Devereux, 2000). The reliance on rainfall for agriculture creates a high risk of food insecurity, as many households have no alternative income sources. In addition, Drought significantly impacts food insecurity by reducing crop yields and livestock productivity, leading to lower food availability and higher prices. The impact of repeated drought on long-term food insecurity is less understood than the immediate impact of drought on rural livelihoods. Two destructive consequences are there: first, efforts to recover from food crises, like rebuilding livestock herds, are abruptly stopped by the next drought. Second, droughts' frequent and unpredictable nature discourages investment in productivity-boosting agricultural inputs because the risk for small farmers is too high. This problem is hard to manage when agriculture is the only source of income for households, and the lack of alternative income sources makes the effects of climate change even worse.
Population increase reduces land per capita availability, but it is not inherently the root cause of food insecurity, contrary to the claims based on Malthusian theory. Instead, it exerts intolerable pressure on an already small and fragile natural resource base. Although there are times when surplus harvests occur, these often go to waste due to inadequate preservation techniques, highlighting structural deficiencies in food preservation and distribution technology (Lema, 2019). This disproves the Malthusian theory, which suggests that population growth will inevitably outstrip food supply, leading to widespread famine. These surpluses could mitigate food insecurity if technological advancements were adequately applied to preserve and distribute food efficiently.
Furthermore, cultural factors including food taboos and practices such as the general opinion of what is edible, which member of the family eats more, or what, contribute to the complex landscape of food insecurity (Mengesha & Ayele, 2015).
The dominance of agriculture as the nation's primary source of income and employment perpetuates food insecurity. There is a group of asset-less rural Ethiopians who face various forms of food insecurity, including chronic, transitional, and cyclical food insecurity. The main triggers for transitory food insecurity are natural or man-made disasters such as drought and war which caused a sharp reduction in the supply of food. Structural factors such as weak institutions, a fragile natural resource base, weak markets, and poor land tenure policies cause chronic food insecurity, while seasonality leads to cyclical food insecurity. Asset-less rural people are subject to all forms of food insecurity because they cannot meet their minimum food requirements even in ideal weather conditions. Landholdings are too small, making it almost impossible for a family of five to meet their needs solely through agricultural production. Therefore, the dominance of agriculture as the nation's primary source of income and employment perpetuates food insecurity. Additionally, various government strategies, such as “Agriculture Development Led Industrialization,” focus only on agriculture as a way to alleviate food insecurity, which I will analyze in the “National Policies” section. So Is focusing policy attention on agriculture the solution to food insecurity or part of the problem? There is a persistent belief in Ethiopia that national food self-sufficiency is both necessary and sufficient to achieve household food security. This failed to account for the strong correlation between rainfall and agricultural yields: good rainfall equals good harvests, but poor rainfall inevitably leads to poor yields, as evidenced by the drought emergency of early 2000.
Survival strategies among food-insecure households often involve reliance on foreign aid, participation in programs like food-for-work initiatives, and migration. Despite Ethiopia's emphasis on agricultural development to combat food insecurity, the efficacy of such policies remains questionable (Ramakrishna & Demeke, 2002). The exclusive focus on agriculture neglects the potential contributions of other economic sectors to household income diversification, exacerbating vulnerability to climate-induced shocks. This raises the overarching question: is agriculture-centric development the solution to food insecurity, or does it inadvertently perpetuate the problem? The absence of economic diversification makes households highly vulnerable to climate-induced disruptions, transitioning transitory food insecurity into chronic states. Addressing this challenge necessitates a broader diffusion of economic activities across multiple sectors, with education serving as a critical pathway for this transformation.
4. Economic Perspective of food insecurity in Ethiopia
First, I want to address poverty in Ethiopia as there is a positive relationship between the patterns of poverty and food insecurity. From here I point out that the prevalence of food insecurity in Ethiopia is an economic issue and thus must be seen in a broader perspective than agriculture and rural development. Food insecurity is both a factor and a consequence of poverty.
In the literature of free market economics, there is no distinct ‘theory’ of poverty. Economists have not seen the necessity for a specific theory on poverty, as the issue has been addressed through various existing economic theories that explain demand management, production economics, fiscal policy, the benefits of trade and exchange, and the reasons behind the wealth of nations. Essentially, poverty has been approached as a result of failure, stemming from conditions that lack the fundamental requirements for economic advancement. Consequently, poverty is linked to the absence of growth and wealth creation. (Hunt, Kingsbury 2004)
Poverty is a multidimensional concept, those who are monetarily poor are also deprived in other dimensions. Thus, the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) tries to capture this by considering overlapping deprivations people suffer simultaneously. The index identifies deprivations across education, health, and standard of living. It counts an individual as multi-dimensionally poor if they suffer deprivations in a third of the weighted indicators. Almost 1.5 billion people in the 91 countries covered by the MPI—more than a third of their population—live in multidimensional poverty; that is, with at least 33% of the indicators reflecting acute deprivation in health, education, and standard of living. This exceeds the estimated 1.2 billion people in those countries who live on US$1.25 a day or less. (Ethiopia poverty assessment, 2014) The most recent survey data that were publicly available for Ethiopia’s MPI estimation refer to 2019. Based on these estimates, 68.7 percent of the population in Ethiopia (82,679 thousand people in 2021) is multidimensionally poor while an additional 18.4 percent is classified as vulnerable to multidimensional poverty (22,076 thousand people in 2021). The intensity of deprivation in Ethiopia, which is the average deprivation score among people living in multidimensional poverty, is 53.3 percent. (UNDP 2023 MPI Report).
4.1. Ethiopian National Policies against food insecurity
In this chapter, I will thoroughly assess Ethiopia’s national policy to fight food insecurity and examine the interconnection between agriculture and economic development. I will try to show how the nationally embraced strategy to alleviate food insecurity centers on promoting economic development through agriculture.
Ministry of Agriculture is the designated body of the Ethiopian ministry that deals with food insecurity. The present-day Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) was established in 1907 during the reign of Emperor Menelik II. Over a century has passed since agriculture was institutionalized. During successive regimes, various measures were taken to improve the agricultural sector. Despite these efforts, there have been no significant improvements in the sector. Consequently, past regimes were unable to eradicate poverty and ensure food security, primarily due to the lack of effective policies and strategies. The Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, established in 1991, introduced new agricultural policies and strategies. Among these, I will examine “The House of Peoples’ Representatives Regulation No. 3/1998” and the Agriculture Development Led Industrialization (ADLI) program in this chapter.
A. The House of Peoples’ Representatives Regulation No. 3/1998
Chapter 22, Article 166: The Rural Development Affairs Standing Committee, The Rural Development Affairs Standing Committee shall undertake the following functions:
1. the activities undertaken to raise production and productivity in the agricultural sector of the economy;
2. the measures taken to achieve the aims of ensuring the Country’s food self-sufficiency and food security;
3. the effective implementation of policies; programmes and plans formulated to enable the agriculture-led development strategy achieve its objectives.
The regulation mentioned above was issued in 1998 by the House of Peoples' Representatives, the lower house of the Ethiopian parliament. It is a regulation issued to tackle food insecurity and ensure the country’s food self-sufficiency. A key observation from this regulation is the strong interconnection between food security and agriculture. State decision-makers perceive the agricultural sector, especially in rural areas, as both the source of and the solution to food security challenges. While it is true that food insecurity is predominantly a rural issue, it is important to recognize that urban areas also experience food insecurity. Despite the longstanding belief that urbanization is beneficial and that urban populations are generally better off than rural areas, the occurrence of food and financial crises in urban areas underscores the reality of urban food insecurity in developing countries. (Gebre, 2012)
This highlights the complexity of food security issues, which are not confined to rural settings but are also prevalent in urban environments. Addressing food insecurity, therefore, requires a comprehensive approach that considers both rural and urban contexts and the unique challenges each presents.
B. Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI)
The Ethiopian economy is heavily reliant on agriculture, yet the sector's performance has been unsatisfactory, with poverty persisting. The stagnation in agriculture has been attributed to a lack of appropriate policies and strategies. To address this issue and stimulate agricultural and economic growth, the government implemented a national development strategy known as Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI). ADLI advocates for a mutually reinforcing transformation of both agriculture and industry, with its primary goal being the alleviation of absolute poverty. This strategy is supplemented by various plans aimed at empowering the industrial sector in addition to agriculture. (Dube, Ozkan, 2019)
East Asia’s industrial development served as a role model for this program, emphasizing an export-oriented approach. However, I believe it is challenging to align rural-focused agricultural production with an export-oriented market. This is primarily because small landholding households in rural areas typically produce food crops rather than cash crops. Ethiopia’s main export is coffee, a cash crop, yet its export volume does not reach its potential. In 2018, Ethiopia's coffee export value was $794,456 thousand, which increased to $1,513,246 thousand in 2022. In contrast, Brazil's coffee export value was $4,553,569 thousand in 2019 and $7,350,550 thousand in 2023 (Trade Map,2024). Although Ethiopia and Brazil have different socio-economic and political structures, this comparison highlights that focusing solely on agricultural production may not be sufficient. Even Ethiopia’s most significant export, coffee, is not yielding the highest returns. Therefore, the focus on agriculture should perhaps be reduced, not entirely abandoned, and resources should be distributed to other sectors as well.
Transitioning from agriculture to industrial manufacturing presents another challenge, namely market imperfections, as described by Thomas Oatley. According to structuralism, a major development theory, states should adopt policies that support industrialization and redirect resources from agricultural production to manufacturing industries, as an excessive focus on agriculture is seen as a primary cause of poverty. The main challenges in this theory are complementary demand and pecuniary external economies. First, complementary demand suggests that the initial transformation from agriculture to industry will be difficult due to a lack of demand or purchasing power for manufactured products. For instance, if a new shoe factory is established employing ten former farmers from rural areas at limited wages, the question arises: who will buy the shoes produced? Second, pecuniary external economies arise from market interdependency. Two complementary sectors, such as steel and automobiles, would benefit from simultaneous production, ensuring mutual demand and supply. However, due to coordination problems, this scenario is challenging to achieve. Structuralists argue that the government should intervene with a "big push" strategy, planning, arranging, or investing directly to create sectoral coordination (Oatley, 2019).
Beyond national production, the Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI) strategy also encompasses foreign direct investment and anticipates challenges such as the foreign aid bubble, commonly referred to as Dutch disease. ADLI envisions a symbiotic relationship between agriculture and industry, where the rural sector is expected to supply labor, agricultural taxes, price controls, and export earnings. In contrast, the urban industrial sector would provide production support, food and service deliveries, agricultural protection, and public investment. However, this linkage appears overly simplistic. A more nuanced and coordinated approach across sectors is essential to address the complexities of economic development effectively.
Possible criticism could be that shifting focus from agriculture to a more inclusive economic development strategy is unrealistic given Ethiopia’s current economic structure. While acknowledging the challenges of implementing such a shift, this paper has argued that a singular focus on agriculture is insufficient. The Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI) strategy, despite its intentions, has not fully addressed food insecurity due to its limited scope. Structuralist development theory supports the argument for a broader economic strategy, emphasizing the need for coordinated efforts across various sectors.
4.2. Agriculture and Food Insecurity
Some scholars view agriculture as the primary solution to addressing poverty and fostering economic development in developing countries. Conversely, others argue that sectoral diversification is necessary and that an excessive focus on agriculture can be problematic. This analysis will examine the interrelationship between agriculture and economic development in developing countries.
Agriculture is a sector where its main production is made by a biological process that involves land and is affected by weather and climate. Climate is the major component of agricultural production, and it shows variation geographically. Thus, geographical factors might cause a difference in agricultural performance, and this constitutes the main source of uncertainty. The production process is wholly dependent on calendar time and has a seasonal character which makes it impossible to break down the process into components that can be performed on an assembly line. Therefore, it limits the possibility of proper division of labor in agricultural production and is costly to monitor labor. This is why farming is mostly a family or close community operation. (Mundlak, 2000) In most underdeveloped countries, the majority of the population resides in rural areas and primarily earns their livelihoods from agriculture. Many rural inhabitants in the developing world live in poverty, and, conversely, most of the world's poor people are found in rural areas. Agriculture constitutes a significant portion of economic activity in these regions, contributing about 25% of the value added in poor countries. Given the substantial size of the agricultural sector, any changes affecting agriculture have considerable overall impacts on the economy. Therefore, it is reasonable to expect that increases in agricultural productivity would significantly influence macroeconomic variables, including economic growth. (Gollin, 2010)
Ethiopia is an agrarian society where the majority of the population resides in rural areas and earns their livelihood from farming. Agriculture has historically been the dominant sector of the economy, contributing significantly to the country's GDP. Agriculture has accounted for more than half of the GDP for a prolonged period. For example, in 1981, 1985, 1990, 1995, and 1999, agriculture's share of the GDP was approximately 58%, 55%, 52%, 55%, and 48%, respectively. Agriculture constitutes a significant portion of the total expenditure for low-income families and countries due to the nature of demand. The primary requirement for developing the agricultural sector is technology. Technological advancements in agriculture have two major effects on the overall economy. First, they increase the food supply while decreasing prices, thereby improving consumer welfare. Second, increased output with relatively less labor becomes possible, facilitating the development of non-agricultural sectors. NFE (non-farm enterprises) ownership refers to running a nonfarm enterprise that offers non-agricultural services like carpentry, processing and selling agricultural by-products such as flour, trade, professional services, transportation, and food services. In Ethiopia, NFE activities are mainly focused on processing and selling agricultural products, trading various goods, or providing services from home or a shop.
The labor force in the agricultural sector typically decreases as a country's development level rises. Migration may reduce the share of agriculture in the total labor force without necessarily indicating development. Generally, however, the higher the proportion of the labor force in agriculture, the less developed the country is. The most important factor in labor division is the total output of the labor. In this context, it is possible to assert that extra labor not contributing to marginal output is technically unemployed and should shift to other sectors. The production levels will not decrease, and the same output can be achieved without new technological advancements. Therefore, non-agricultural sectors should be developed and incentivized to absorb the incoming labor force.
Lastly, Possible criticism to this argument could be that shifting focus from agriculture to a more inclusive economic development strategy is unrealistic given Ethiopia’s current economic structure. While acknowledging the challenges of implementing such a shift, this paper has argued that a singular focus on agriculture is insufficient. The Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI) strategy, despite its intentions, has not fully addressed food insecurity due to its limited scope. Structuralist development theory supports the argument for a broader economic strategy, emphasizing the need for coordinated efforts across various sectors.
5. Conclusion
This study has limitations. Firstly, accessing Ethiopian databases to obtain and compare data based on specific variables proved challenging. Consequently, the study relies on a limited dataset and evaluates only two pieces of legislation, which may impact the empirical reliability of the findings. Future research can address this gap by employing qualitative methods, such as questionnaires and interviews with experts, to collect more extensive data and enhance the reliability of the arguments presented.
In conclusion, this term paper has covered the new idea of human security in a detailed way and linked it to food insecurity in Ethiopia. I thoroughly analyzed food insecurity in Ethiopia and evaluated the effectiveness of government policies aimed at addressing this critical issue. The multifaceted nature of food insecurity has been highlighted, emphasizing that the lack of income diversification triggers an already fragile situation. It has been argued that Ethiopia's focus on agriculture alone is insufficient to alleviate food insecurity. Instead, a more inclusive approach that integrates various economic sectors is necessary.
I first discussed what security is in general and the shift of security’s understanding from state security to people’s security. It was also discussed as a human rights issue within the liberal global agenda, stressing the importance of food security for the well-being of all individuals. Then the concept of food insecurity was explored, distinguishing it from hunger and highlighting its prevalence in both developing and developed countries. Ecological factors such as drought and population growth were considered in examining the reasons for food insecurity in Ethiopia. The evaluation of national policies, particularly the Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI) strategy, revealed the limitations of a singular focus on agriculture. Reviewing and critiquing these policies through the lens of structuralist development theory showed that a broader and more coordinated economic strategy is essential.
The term paper concludes that addressing food insecurity in Ethiopia requires a paradigm shift in policymaking. Moving beyond an agriculture-centric approach to embrace a comprehensive, multi-sectoral strategy will better equip the nation to tackle food insecurity and achieve sustainable economic development. This study points out the need for policies that consider the complex and interconnected factors contributing to food insecurity, advocating for a diversified and comprehensive approach to economic growth. By shifting focus towards human security, we can better align national security policies with the genuine needs of the population. This entails investing in social infrastructure, healthcare, education, and economic diversification, which collectively enhance the resilience and well-being of individuals. Such an approach not only mitigates immediate human security threats but also contributes to long-term national stability and development.
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